Largest Snake Fossil Discovered in Colombia

Scientists from an international team lead by the University of Florida's Florida Museum of Natural History have discovered fossil remains of the largest snake species ever recorded.

Named Titanoboa cerrejonensis, the ancient snake measured 42 to 45 feet long and weighed an estimated 2500 pounds. It lived between 58 million and 60 million years ago and could have easily swallowed ancient crocodiles whole. The fossils were discovered on a dig in a Cerrejón coal mine in Colombia in 2007, and the find breaks the record by 11 feet for the longest snake ever found, a record previously held by fossil remains found in Egypt.

Paleontologists previously believed that snakes had a maximum on how long they could grow, a value somewhat less than 40 feet. The size of a snake is a direct indicator of its environment, as modern snake's sizes are a function of how warm their environment is. A snake as large at Titanoboa indicates that prehistoric South America was as much as 10 degrees warmer than it is today.

Previously, scientists had found no fossils from any vertebrate species that lived between 65 million and 55 million years ago in South America, a period of time just after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Along with about 180 fossil pieces were remains of extinct crocodile and turtle species, likely eaten by Titanoboa.

These results were published in the February 5th issue of Nature.

Source: ScienceDaily

Orbiting Telescope Detects Smallest Exoplanet

An orbiting telescope run by the French space agency Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) has detected the smallest exoplanet yet discovered, a planet only about twice the size of Earth.

The Corot telescope discovered the planet using a technique known as the transit method, by which the light of the star dims slightly as the planet crosses its visible path. Designated Corot-Exo-7b, the planet orbits its star once every 20 hours and because of its proximity to its sun, its surface temperature lies between 1000°C and 1500°C, far too inhospitable to support life. Another planet also orbits the same star, one larger and more similar to Neptune.

About 330 exoplanets have been identified so far, with most belonging to the type known as gas giants more similar to Jupiter or Neptune than "rocky" planets such as Earth or Mars. Most exoplanets are discovered using what is known as the radial velocity method, which is a slight but detectable wobbling of the star due to an orbiting planet's own gravity.

These results were announced February 3rd on the European Space Ageny (ESA) website.

Source: BBC News

White-Nose Syndrome Killing Bats in Northeastern U.S.

Biologists at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have identified a mysterious white fungus that is responsible for devastating bat populations in the northeastern United States.

First identified two years ago, scientists have isolated a white fungus that grows on the muzzle (hence the name "white-nose syndrome") and body of bats and thrives in the extreme cold and dry conditions of winter caves. The exact mechanism by which this fungus kills the bats is not yet understood, but the condition appears to have an 80% to 100% mortality rate. Some hibernacula (bat colonies) have lost as many as 90% of their numbers.

White-nose syndrome was first found in caves in upstate New York, Vermont, western Massachusetts and Connecticut but has spread this year to caves as far as New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Little brown bats are the most affected species, although the disease has also affected northern long-eared and small-footed bats, eastern pipistrelle bats as well as the Indiana bat, currently listed as an endangered species. Because female bats birth only one pup per year, this syndrome may have serious consequences to their overall population.

Bats play a crucial role in many ecosystems by keeping the insect population in check as well as providing pollination for some plants. The fungus is not believed to pose a health risk for humans but there is a fear that this syndrome could spread unchecked and spur an ecological crisis as local bat colonies disappear.

This news was released recently by the Northeast Region of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Source: Yahoo!

New Form of Elemental Boron Discovered

Researchers at Stony Brook University have discovered a new phase of elemental boron, created in the laboratory under extremely high pressures.

The new phase of boron is stable at high temperatures and at pressures as great as 100,000 times atmospheric pressure. The atomic structure of this phase consists of two substructures stacked together, with a matrix of 12 spherical boron atoms that includes two-atom "dumbbell" pairs. The two substructures form ionic bonds, the first time this type of bond has been observed in structures consisting of only one element.

Developed independently in two different laboratories in 2004, scientists were unable to determine how or why this phase was created. Computational analysis using a specially developed algorithm allowed researchers to encode the crystal structure and allow the program to find the optimal arrangement, thus confirming the properties of the newly discovered material.

Three phases of boron were previously known, with some uncertainty about its naturally stable form. This fourth phase is not as hard as diamond but has better heat-resistant properties, which may lend itself to industrial applications.

This research was published online in the January 28th edition of Nature.

Source: New York Times

Ten New Amphibian Species Discovered in Colombia

Members of Conservation International discovered ten previously unknown species while on an expedition in the tropical mountains of Colombia.

Among the new species found were three glass frogs of the Nymphargus, Cochranella and Centrolene genera, so called because their internal organs are visible through their translucent skin; three poison dart frogs of the Colostethus, Ranitomeya and Anomaloglossus genera, whose natural toxins present on their skin make them poisonous; one harlequin frog of the genus Atelopus; two different types of Pristimantis rain frogs; and one Bolitoglossa salamander species. Colombia is recognized as having one of the most diverse amphibian communities in the world, with 754 currently known species.

The expedition was part of the group's Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) and targeted the Darien region of Colombia near the Panama border, which includes the mountainous Tacarcuna area. Herpetologists from Conservation International led the expedition, which also included ornithologists from Colombia's Ecotrópico Foundation. Over a period of three weeks, the group cataloged about 60 species of amphibians, 20 species of reptiles and almost 120 species of birds, many found nowhere else.

Amphibians are considered "indicator species" because their permeable skin exposes them directly to the environment, and thus these animals are affected by changes or contaminants in that environment before other more robust species. Amphibians are also extremely sensitive to variations in temperature and moisture brought about by changes in climate.

These results were announced February 2nd on Conservation International.

Source: Yahoo!

Turtle Fossil Points to Warm Arctic Past

Geologists from the University of Rochester discovered a warm-weather turtle fossil in the Canadian Arctic that suggests once temperate or even subtropical temperatures at the poles.

Setting out to study the paleomagnetism of the region, the turtle was uncovered almost by accident in an area known to be rich with fossils. A previously unknown species, the fossil resembles modern tropical Mongolian freshwater turtles and suggests a much warmer climate than the current frigid temperatures in the Arctic. In conjunction with the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Canada, the turtle species was named Aurorachelys, or aurora turtle.

Animals were previously thought to migrate between Asia and North America in the Cretaceous period via a former land bridge that existed around the Alaska region. This fossil evidence points to a previous warm Arctic freshwater sea that existed about 90 million years ago, through which species such as this turtle could have migrated directly across the pole.

This warming is believed to be due to ancient volcanic activity pumping massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, creating a "super-greenhouse effect" with a warm Arctic sea free of ice.

These results were published in the February issue of Geology.

Source: ScienceDaily

Single Gene Allows Bacteria to Migrate between Hosts

Scientists at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have discovered that a single gene allows a bacteria to migrate to new host species.

Both marine species bobtail squid and pinecone fish use bacteria-based bioluminescence as part of their camouflage and hunting techniques. The same species of bacteria, Vibrio fischeri, was found in both marine animals with one exception: the difference of a single additional gene in the variety present in the squid. This extra gene serves as a regulatory agent that allows the bacteria to colonize the new host species.

Virtually every animal known (including humans) has a variety of microorganisms specifically associated with that species, and microbial life crossing species to infect a new host is very rare. Scientists previously believed this rarity was due to bacteria requiring a wide set of new genes to successfully infect a different animal.

This research reveals that a single regulatory gene is all that is necessary to migrate to a new host species. Knowledge of this process may assist in the development of new drugs or therapies as a single gene is easier to target for the prevention or treatment of infection.

These results were published in the February 1st issue of Nature.

Source: ScienceDaily

Blue Light Destroys MRSA

Researchers at the New York Institute of Technology have discovered that a certain wavelength of blue light destroys the virulent antibiotic-resistant strain of the Staph bacteria known as MRSA.

In a process known as photo-irradiation, two common strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) were exposed to various doses of 470 nm blue light, a wavelength that does not emit ultraviolet radiation. The team found that the greater the dose of light used, the more microorganisms were killed. Up to 90.4% in colonies of the MRSA strains US-300 and IS-853 were destroyed using this method.

The precise method by which this process works is not fully understood but it is believed the DNA of the bacteria absorbs the energy of these specific wavelengths, causing irreparable damage and eventual cell death. Researchers have long known the bactericidal effects of 400-nm light and ultraviolet radiation, with research as far back as 1930. Blue light of 415 nm has been used to treat acne cases by destroying Propionibacterium acne, and the infectious Pseudomonas aeruginosa is killed by light with a wavelength of 405 nm.

MRSA poses an increasing health threat, as approximately 40% to 50% of all staphylococcal strains have developed resistance to modern antibiotics such as methicillin. Less than 5% of staphylococcal strains are currently susceptible to penicillin treatments. The use of blue light in the laboratory suggests it may be effective for the treatment of cutaneous and subcutaneous infections without promoting further resistance to antibiotics.

These results are scheduled to appear in the April issue of Photomedicine and Laser Surgery.

Source: ScienceDaily; Photo: Wikipedia

Serotonin Causes Locusts to Swarm

Scientists at the University of Cambridge have found that a sharp increase in serotonin levels in locusts is the chemical trigger that causes them to swarm.

Normally a solitary insect, locusts produce more serotonin when circumstances such as drought force many of them together, such as at a common remaining food source. This combined sight, smell and touch of similar insects induces the production of serotonin, and at levels as much as three times normal they operate as pack animals in devastating swarms that affect up to 20% of the Earth's land.

Serotonin is a brain chemical that has been linked to libido, mood, appetite, sleep and memory in humans. Researchers found they could induce this swarming behavior in locusts by injecting them with serotonin, as well as inhibit this behavior by using a serotonin blocker. Knowledge of how chemicals such as serotonin affect insects could lead to better methods to prevent ravaging swarms before they develop.

These results were published in the January 30th edition of Science.

Source: Yahoo!

First Astronomical Observation of Exoplanet Weather

Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz have observed changing weather patterns for the first time on a planet outside our own solar system.

Using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, the scientists observed an extrasolar planet known as HD80606b, a giant planet four times as large as Jupiter that orbits a star some 200 light years distant. As the planet orbits close to its sun, the normal 980°F surface temperature quickly heats up to around 2240°F.

Temperatures were determined from infrared measurements of the planet, and the data was used to simulate realistic weather patterns using a computer model. The massive dose of radiation received from such a close encounter with its sun creates global storms and shockwaves throughout the atmosphere, including winds estimated at speeds of up to 5 km/sec.

Discovered in 2001, HD80606b has the most eccentric orbit of any planet yet identified, completing an elliptical comet-like orbit in only 111 days. It approaches more than ten times closer to its star than does the planet Mercury, and completes this close transit in less than 24 hours.

These results were published in the January 29th issue of Nature.

Source: Yahoo!; Photo: ScienceDaily

Honey Bees Can Recognize Simple Numbers

A team of researchers from the Australian National University and Würzburg University have shown that honey bees can distinguish between simple numbers at a glance.

The experiment consisted of a tunnel with various branch points, each branch marked with a collection of dots and only one sequence of dots leading to a reward. To reach the reward, honey bees had to navigate through the choices corresponding to a consistent number of dots. After taking time to initially examine the dots, the honey bees reliably and repeatedly followed the correct sequence in subsequent runs, even when the nondescript dots were replaced with different colors, shapes or patterns.

The bees could easily distinguish and make choices based on one, two and three items, and could even learn to recognize four items with a little practice, but they could not reliably tell the difference among groups of items greater than four. This is a process known as subitizing, or responding rapidly to a small collection of items, and demonstrates at least a basic understanding of numbers.

A great deal of evidence exists for this counting ability among vertebrates such as birds, monkeys or dolphins but this is the first evidence for a similar ability in insects. Such an ability may prove useful for honey bees to recall a path traveled in their search for food, which in some documented cases can take them as much as 11 kilometers away from their hive.

These results were published January 29th in the journal Public Library of Science.

Source: ScienceDaily

Language Study Traces Pacific Settlement

Scientists at the University of Auckland have completed a human language study that traces the settlement of the South Pacific to its origins on the island of Taiwan.

Using a computer to analyze 400 Austronesian languages spread across the Pacific islands, the historical trace and progress of how prehistoric cultures settled these locations can be determined. They found the ancestors of modern Austronesians originated in Taiwan about 5200 years ago, entered the Philippines about a thousand years later and from there rapidly expanded throughout Polynesia as far as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. After another pause of roughly a thousand years, settlement expanded again to areas as far away as Hawaii and Easter Island.

The "family tree" of Pacific languages was constructed by a comparative analysis of simple vocabulary such as words for animals, numbers, colors and simple verbs. The Austronesian group is one of the largest families of languages in the world, containing more than 1200 languages spread across the Pacific.

These results were published in a recent edition of Science.

Source: ScienceDaily

Miniature Boat Powered by Surface Tension

Engineers at the University of Pittsburgh have developed a miniature boat that propels itself across water with no moving parts using nothing but a disruption of the surface tension.

Inspired by how beetle larvae move across the water, the boat uses a similar process for its own propulsion without paddles, sails or motors. With the surface tension of water pulling a floating object equally on all sides, an electric pulse disrupts the surface tension to the rear with the remaining surface tension pulling the boat in the opposite direction. Pyrrhalta beetle larvae accomplish the same by arching their back downward as they rest on top of the water.

Experiments moved a 2-cm "mini-boat" across the water's surface at approximately 4 mm per second, with a second electrode mounted at the rear acting as a rudder. This method of propulsion provides an efficient and low-maintenance method for small automated tools and robots that monitor water quality in reservoirs and other bodies of water. The craft can be powered either by on-board batteries or solar power.

These results were presented on January 26th at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' 2009 Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) conference in Sorrento, Italy.

Source: ScienceDaily

Brain Cells Discovered Acting as Short-Term Memory Buffer

Researchers at the UT Southwestern Medical Center have discovered that some cells in the front part of the brain can hold temporary short-term memory information.

Single cells in the most highly evolved part of the brain can hold nonpermanent moment-to-moment data in a process called metabotropic glutamate transmission. This process uses calcium to start a signal cascade to hold a memory trace within individual neurons for as long as a minute, and is responsible for the temporary memory used in multitasking or playing a card game.

Traditional long-term memory involves a slow-moving protein activating ion channels among cellular networks to strengthen their connections and establish a permanent record, a process too slow to record or buffer rapidly incoming messages from the senses. This research has implications for addiction, attention disorders and stress-related memory loss.

Scientists experimented with mouse models using the neurochemical dopamine, a substance necessary for proper focus and fast, short-term memory. Drug and alcohol abuse involves substances that flood the brain with dopamine, and researchers found that repeated exposure to high levels of dopamine reduces the memory trace activation ability in these specialized brain cells.

This research was published in the Febrary issue of Nature Neuroscience.

Source: ScienceDaily